Abstract

Abstract

A wide variety of studies on public schools located in priority educational zones (ZEPs or at-risk schools) in France detail the socio-educational challenges arising in these classrooms (cite). The last decade in France has seen increasing South Asian, East Asian, Slavic and Middle Eastern immigration, nationwide debates on French public educational reforms, policy reforms enacted after rioting in Fall 2005 by immigrant youth in the suburbs of several French cities, and recent political changes in France affecting support for at-risk schools, immigrant status, and youth employment. Given these ongoing developments, further research is needed on how neo-Francophones with symbol-based heritage languages learn to succeed in French math classrooms, since French end-of-course, baccalaureat exams are open-ended and thus high school math instruction tends to rely upon both content area knowledge and academic language proficiency (cite).

This paper reviews the current literature on programs and strategies for effectively modifying instructional practices in ZEP schools to help neo-Francophones from symbol-based heritage languages like Chinese, Arabic, and Hebrew enhance their cognitive links to advanced math reasoning. Based on the literature reviewed, inclusion of these instructional strategies may benefit both neo-Francophone and mainstream math students in both regular and ZEP-situated public school classrooms (cite).

Primary Research and Sources

This paper draws primarily upon 1) longitudinal research findings on newcomers within French, British, Canadian and American schools by Schiff, Fouquet-Chauprade, and The Harvard Migrant Project; 2) empirical and quantitative studies by the French Government; 3) reports by French regional education academies and self-reported, qualitative and quantitative data by their respective schools; 4) case studies and instructional materials produced by CASNAV: the French government agency that works directly with newcomers in French initiation classes; 5) recent studies of bilingual and multilingual literacy and numeracy concepts amongst young learners with symbolic heritage languages by Kenner, Sneddon, and Verhoeven, and 6) second language acquisition research findings by Chomsky, Cummins, Krashen, El Bina, Valles, Brittain and Orozco.

Introduction to the Introduction

Drawing on research from several disciplines, this paper reviews the established literature on programs that effectively help French newcomers with symbolic heritage languages like Chinese, Arabic and Hebrew to build language and math proficiency while enrolled in "at-risk" ZEP schools. The paper also synthesizes the literature that identifies practices suited to the varying contexts and needs of newcomers with symbolic heritage languages, and highlights innovative educational practices having worked for these types of newcomers in both France and abroad.

Section 1 Neo-Francophones (PALS) in French Public Schools & Effective Programs (Draft -- Partly Loaded)

Newcomers in French Public Schools and Effective Programs

Identifying Primo-Arrivants de Langue Seconde (PALS)

French Education Ministry reports use the terms "élèves nouveaux arrivants", "primo-arrivants" and "primo-migrants" to designate newly-arrived students in France for whom insufficient French language mastery or insufficient prior study prohibit their immediate integration into a regular classroom setting." (CASNAV, 2002). Other government reports refer to neo-Francophone learners as "Primo-Arrivants de Français Langue Seconde" (PALS) (CASNAV, 2002; MNE, 2002).

Education Ministry regulations require enrollment of all newcomers to public schools age 18 or under. (CASNAV: Modalites d 'inscription et de Scolarisation des eleves de nationalite etrangere des premier et second degres. (C. n° 2002-063 du 20-3-2002 NOR : MENEO200681C RLR : 515-0 MEN - DESCO B6 - DAJ A1)

Research on Demographics Affecting Immigration and PALS in France

2002-03 Ministry of Education reports find that nearly 38,000 neo-Francophones were received in these classes nationwide. (MNE, 2003) Eighteen thousand (18,000) were in primary schools, while 18,000 more were in middle schools, leaving 2000 in high schools, most of whom enrolled in professional, vocational high schools (Paris 19th District Town Hall Report, 2004). 2002-2003 Ministry reports found more than 65% of all neo-Francophones nationwide to benefit from initiation courses. (MNE, 2003) However, longitudinal Ministry studies reported that class availability varied with the Academy. (MNE, 2003) Eight academies trained less than 50% of the total neo-Francophone enrollment, while ten academies trained more than 65% of the total. (MNE, 2003) Based on 2003 Ministry data for the Paris, Rouen, Creteil and Versailles Academies, total newcomer enrollments for elementary-level initiation classes exceeded 90%. (MNE, 2003) Supplemental Ministry reports from 2002 found significant allocation of CASNAV resources to PALS in the primary grades: in 2002-03, 75% of elementary level PALS enrolled in French initiation classes, while only 58% of middle school PALS and 48% of high school level PALS enrolled. (CASNAV, 2002). Versailles Academy alone exceeded 90% enrollment of all PALS in both elementary and secondary level initiation classes. (MNE, 2003)

While 2007 Education Ministry studies found that overall newcomer enrollments again varied significantly by Academy, the number of PALS in French public schools continued to increase (MNE, 2007).
Table 1.1 sets forth 2007 PALS enrollments in elementary and secondary schools for all 30 regional educational academies.

Agencies Entrusted With PALS Supervision

The Center for Academic Readiness of Migrant Children (CASNAV) is the agency entrusted with acculturating neo-Francophones and newcomers enrolling in French public schools. Centre Académique pour la Scolarisation des Nouveaux Arrivants et des enfants du Voyage (CASNAV, C. No. 2002-100, 2002) Education Ministry archives trace the inception of neo-Francophone programs to 1975 and to the CASNAV predecessor agency Training Centers for School Readiness of Migrant Children (CEFISEM), with the creation of primary and secondary-level modules intended to facilitate gradual inclusion of PALS into regular classrooms. (CASNAV C. No. 2002-102, 2002). By government mandate, the CEFISEM mission (as predecessor to CASNAV) focused on the school readiness of PALS. (CASNAV Circular, October 1990) Initially, only several regional academies implemented initiation courses throughout France; eventual formation of 22 CEFISEMs led to the need for greater organization (Lang, 2001).

Categories of Initiation Classes for PALS

Through its Academies, the French Education Ministry offers four (4) initiation class categories: 1) CLIN: initiation classes for elementary schools; 2) CRI: integrated catch-up classes (within a regular elementary classroom setting); 3) CLA: initiation classes for secondary schools; and 4) MAT: temporary introductory modules for secondary schools. CASNAV (The Center for Academic Readiness of New Arrivals and Migrant Children) regional offices and affiliates currently administer these courses. Reforms of both CLIN and CLA classes in 2002 set forth 1) class size, 2) instructional requirements, and 3) sub-classification of PALS into those having or lacking prior exposure to the French language. (CASNAV C. no. 2002-100, April, 2002).
2002 census data revealed increasing diversity amongst French immigrant populations (CEFISEM Report No. 2002-100, April 2002). Studies by various government agencies in 2002 found that Chinese, Algerians and Moroccans constitute the highest percentage of new arrivals to French initiation classes in the Paris area (CLINs). However, by 2003, CASNAV Paris reported 208 Chinese, 205 Moroccans and nearly 200 Algerians enrolled in initiation classes (Brèves de CASNAV, No. 4, 2003).

PALS Enrollment Processes - An Overview

PALS Enrollment Procedures for CLIN

Education Ministry circulars prescribe enrollment procedures for elementary level initiation classes (C. no. 2002-063, March, 2002). CASNAV enrollment first takes place at district town halls. (MNE website, 2004)To begin PALS enrollment, parents provide proof of: 1) residence, 2) birth, 3) identity, and 4) vaccination records to district offices. (CASNAV Website, 2004; from http://cefisem.scola.ac-paris.fr/) Once parents meet documentary pre-requisites, PALS are enrolled in initiation classes close to home. (CASNAV 2004, Bulletin, go to http://cefisem.scola.ac-paris.fr/) PALS often enroll jointly in an initiation class and an ordinary class, to gradually mingle with native Francophone peers. At year's end, PALS join regular classes in an elementary, middle, or high school setting.

PALS Enrollment Procedures for CLA

Education Ministry bulletins detail specific prerequisites for enrollment in middle and high school initiation classses. (MNE, 2003) To begin CLA enrollment, parents provide: 1) photo-based identifications for both parent and child; 2) birth certificates and official identifications, with translated family record books; 3) two forms of proofs of residence (utilities bill, rent receipts or tax statements); 4) prior report cards; 5) proof of guardianship (where applicable); 6) (2) color identification photos; 7) three self-addressed stamp envelopes; 8) a recent school diagnostic, and/or an appointment for its administration.

Research on Changing Demographics of French PALS in Paris

Table 2 reports 2007 Newcomer Enrollments in the Paris Academy by nationality (CASNAV, 2007)
Paris Academy reports find that Chinese newcomers constitute the nationality most represented within initiation classes. (CASNAV Paris, 2007 ) However, reports by Creteil and other academies neighboring Paris found that Magreb and African students to be most represented in initiation classes. ( )

2007 Research conducted by the Paris Academy specifically found a significant increase in the percentage of PALS from China in elementary-level initiation classes (MNE, 2007). Figure - illustrates enrollment by Paris district and contrasts Chinese-origin enrollmetns with those of all other nationalities. ( , ). Additional analysis by the Paris Academy also found an increased percentage of newcomers lacking the ability to read latin characters and/or requiring signficant support to do so; --% of these were from --- (CASNAV Paris, 2007).

Effective Programs For PALS

Several studies found that PALS enrolling in year-long initiation classes gained both linguistic support and academic scaffolding. (CASNAV C. No. 2002-102, 2002) \

Research on CLIN Enrollments in the Paris Academy

As Table 1.3 illustrates, elementary level enrollments in initiation classes find their highest numbers in Northeastern districts of Paris.

Research on CLA Enrollments in the Paris Academy

How PALS Enrollments Overlap with ZEP Enrollments

Longitudinal Research on PALS in Initiation Classes

Schiff (2006)

Creteil Academy CASNAV and Its Effective Programs

CASNAV Creteil and Effective Programs for PALS

In contrast with the centralized structure of Paris Academy, Créteil Academy documents report 3 separate departments with 3 different CASNAV programs: 1) CASNAV Seine-et-Marne; 2) CASNAV Seine-Saint-Denis; and 3) CASNAV Val-de-Marne. (Creteil Academy, 2007)

Current Créteil Academy Bulletins (Academie de Créteil, 2007) report a five-part CASNAV Créteil mission: 1) inform institutional partners, parents and school associations; 2) accompany newcomer schooling through mediation and cooperative partnership; 3)counsel, coach and advise elementary and secondary teachers in their practice; 4) train elementary and secondary teachers through initial and ongoing professional development; and to 5) produce and distribute (disseminate) pedagogical tools and instructional materials. (Academy of Créteil, 2007)

Créteil Academy Bulletins also report 7 areas of expertise for its 3 CASNAV offices: 1) reception of newcomers and migrant students ((a) official texts; b) enrollment processes; c) reception in schools; d) and school systems and operations); 2) instruction and follow-up of newcomers and migrant students through initiation classes at the elementary and secondary levels; 3) instructional methods and strategies for teaching French as a Second Language, French as a Foreign language, French as a Maternal Language; and French in Content Areas ( ); 4) ; 5) 6) and 7

Data on PALS Enrollments in Creteil - Overview

Based on statistical reports, Figures 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 diagram the Créteil Academy structure and representative data on PALS enrollments.

Research on PALS Enrollments in Seine-et-Marne





























Research on PALS Enrollments in Seine-Saint-Denis

Research on PALs Enrollments in Val-de-Marne

Section 4 - Trends in Bilingual, Multilingual and Migrant Education Research As It Affects Effective Programs for PALS

UNESCO Efforts in Post-War Europe and Its Impact on Second Language Research in Europe

Numerous research studies have found that nations tend to require education in a language based on national needs; therefore, the official language often is viewed as the natural vehicle for instruction. (Hinkel, 2007)
The result becomes that many children are educated in their second language. (Hinkel, 2007) A 1953 study conducted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) revealed that children educated in their second language experienced difficulties in school and that the home language is critical because it is the vehicle through "which a child absorbs the cultural environment." (UNESCO, 1953). The UNESCO report led to resurgent interest amongst researchers in examining the effect of student use of primary languages on mastery of instruction (Hinkel, 2007).

The Council of Europe and The Common European Reference Framework for Language Teaching

Subsequent research studies by language experts like Gouillier (2001) found that since its 2001 creation, The Common European Language Teaching Reference Framework (CECR) enjoyed success in both EC institutions and educational systems a founding document for new language education policies (Gouiller, 2001; CECR, 2001), (Avelino, 2002). CECR success in turn was interpreted by other researchers as validation of a European policy of plurilingualism (Gouiller, 2001).

Europe-based researchers--including French researchers--refer to CECR language competency and assessment rubrics, as well as CECR descriptions of language learning processes. (Gouiller, 2001). For example, Table 4.1 details the six levels of language competency by CECR--used in local CASNAV programs to evaluate French Second Language mastery (Laborie, 2003). However, subsequent French studies also found differences between Council of Europe CECR goals espoused and the local processes used for their implementation. (Gouiller, 2001) Other studies concluded that adoption of CECR precepts did not imply use of all CECR components. (Gouiller, 2001) .

Comparative studies found that CECR tenets inform many CASNAV language methods and programs.
Importantly, CECR cites a wide range of language acquisition research; CECR cites directly to several (natural language) works by S. Krashen and contemporaries (Krashen, 1983).

Moreover, cited second language acquisition research is predominantly European, and review of numerous studies seems to suggest an asystemic effort to incorporate findings derived from bilingual education research (French Ministry policy officially finds bilingual education contrary to French public school policy) (see (Beaudoin, 2004). Several second language theories: notably, Jim Cummins theories on BICS versus CALP and Common Underlying Proficiency popular amongst American bilingual researchers--are not included in foundational CECR language materials. (CECR, Bibliography, 2001).

Schools of Language Acquisition Research and PALS

According to various language acquisition studies, the process by which an individual acquires a comprehensive knowledge of language is known as language acquisition (Findlay, 1998)
As a field of inquiry, language acquisition extends not only to observing primary language acquisition but also to studies of second language acquisition (Findlay, 1998). Contemporary researchers find that two schools of thought tend to dominate the language acquisition field: the innatists and the naturalists. ( ) The innatists, led by Noam Chomsky, Steven Pinker and Derek Bickerton, believe that acquisition of human language is guided primarily by internal, innate processes that are specific only to human beings. (Findlay, 1998)

Research by Chomsky, The Language Acquisition Device and Its Affect on French Second Language Acquisition Studies

Chomksy termed innate capacity for human language acquisition as "the language acquisition device" (LAD). (Chomsky, 1968). Innatists also concluded that a critical period exists (between birth and ages five to eight, with differences) in which the language acquisition process occurs naturally. ( Findlay, 1998). Chomsky also found that ability to acquire language diminishes with age (Chomsky, 1965). Chomsky concluded that language acquisition for adults represents a difficult and cognitively demanding task. (Chomsky, 1968)

Meaningful Input and Its Impact on Second Language Learners Like PALS

Social interactionists, associated with linguists Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell, found that few, if, any internal barriers exist to language acquisition. (Krashen and Terrell, 1985). Social interactionists conclude that barriers to subsequent language acquisition (languages learned later in life) are largely products of external, social and cultural factors. (Krashen, 1983) (Findlay, 1998). Krashen (1983) also found that parents and caretakers modify speech to maximize contextual understanding for children. Krashen found that caregiver practices allowed young language learners to comprehend what was being said, and thus produced what Krashen and Terrell concluded to be "comprehensible input." (Krashen, 1983)

Krashen found that gradual introduction of more complex language aspects increased young language learner ability to apply language to real-life situations--until they could use language fluently (Krashen, 1983) Krashen (1983) concluded that replicating these processes for adult second language learners helps language acquisition unfold easily as with children.

Based on these findings, Krashen (1983) surmised the main obstacle to second or subsequent language acquisition to be a product of how languages are taught and acquired. (Krashen, 1983). Subsequent researchers used Krashen's findings to contrast sociolinguistic teaching methods with conventional language teaching approaches (Findlay, 1998). Conventional teaching methods for second language acquisition focus on rote grammar and vocabulary memorization; conventional language classes emphasized conversational language after learning grammar and vocabulary basics (Findlay, 1998).

Krashen (1983) concluded that following the natural approach to second language acquisition, conversational language comes first (as occurs with children). Vocabulary building occurs within the context of ongoing conversation, while grammatical rules are applied once learners acquire a sense of the target language. (Krashen, 1983). Krashen and sociolinguistic approach proponents found that for second language learners, the natural approach should simulate the process by which first languages are learned. (Krashen, 1985 )

Krashen's Affective Filter and Its Effect on the Input of PALS

The phenomenon of affect and its relationship to second language learning is well-known and has been experienced by most language learners. One concept appearing prominent in second language literature research is known as the Affective Filter, intended to account for why some learn second languages while others do not (Krashen, 1985) (Gass and Selinker, 2008 )

Studies by Krashen (1985) use two concepts to account for non-learning in second language scenarios: 1) learners fail to receive "comprehensible input" in sufficient quantities; and/or 2) an "inappropriate affect" is to blame. Affect, from Krashen’s perspective, includes factors such as motivation, attitude, self-confidence, and anxiety. (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Krashen proposed an Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen, 1985) (see Figure 4.2). Krashen (1983) found that when the Affective Filter is up, input can not pass through, thus preventing acquisition (retention). When the Filter is low, and input becomes comprehensible, input reaches "the acquisition device", allowing "acquisition" to occur. (Krashen, 1982)

Affective Filter Research and Its Effect on Second Language Learners Like PALS

According to Krashen (1983) , the Affective Filter is responsible for individual variation in second language acquisition and differentiates child language acquisition from second language acquisition because the Affective Filter is not something children have/use. (Krashen, 1982)

The Krashen Affective Filter Hypothesis (1983) relates affective variables to the process of second language acquisition by positing that acquirers vary with respect to the strength or level of their Affective Filters. For Krashen (1983), second language learners with attitudes not optimal for second language acquisition will not only tend to seek less input, but they will also have a high or strong Affective Filter—even if they understand the message, the input will not reach the brain section responsible for language acquisition, or the Language Acquisition Device. Krashen thus concluded that second languge learners with attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition not only seek and obtain more input, but also possess a lower or weaker filter, facilitating their greater openness to input that thus can strike “deeper.” (Krashen, 1982)

Figure 4. 3 (The Affective Filter Hypothesis)

Chomsky, Language Acquisition and the Affect on Language Programs for PALS

Analysis of several related French and CECR-language expert sites found that tenets of Norm Chomsky language theories: universal grammar and others remain influential amongst some current French researchers aligned with CECR policies. (See e.g. Marc Bloch Center, 2007)

In 1955, Chomsky created the theory of universal grammar: men can learn, pronounce and translate other languages, because Chomsky hypothesized that humans with more or less same genes were capable of similar expression (Chomsky, 1968). All languages purportedly functioned similarly: certain traits were learned directly, others were inherited, and inherited traits formed part of the same genetic patrimony (Chomksy, 1968). Thus, Chomsky maintained that man learned neither language nor grammar: both were innate and formed within our biology (Chomsky, 1955, 1968). Once finding language aptitude to be a biological system Chomsky (1968) also found 1) principles common to all languages and 2) language instinct to be universal.

French Second Language Acquisition Trends and Its Affect on PALS-Related Programs

A wide range of second language acquisition researchers throughout France tend to endorse CECR-aligned research and continue to emphasize the work of Chomsky as relevant to French as Second Language Learning (CECR, 2001; Marc Bloch Center-Strasbourg, 2007). Trends in French Second Language Acquisition would seem to tend to affect current and proposed approaches to PALS-related programs.

Heritage Language Studies within Second Language Acquisition Research and Its Effect on PALS

Heritage language speaker is a relatively is a relatively recent term, having its origins in the education literature. (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Heritage language speakers are, broadly speaking, those who have been exposed to a language of personal connection (Fishman, 2001). Valdes (2001) notes that “it is the historical and personal connection to the language that is salient and not the actual proficiency of individual speakers.” (Valdes, 2001)

Heritage language acquisition is a form of second language acquisition and a form of bilingualism (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Heritage language learners have knowledge of two languages (the home language and the language of the environment/school), and are usually dominant in the second language.

Heritage speakers amass a wide range of linguistic knowledge, determined by the second language environment during their school years, the amount of input in the home and other factors (Gass & Selinker, 2008). Nonetheless, it is generally accepted in current literature that the nature of language learning for heritage language learners differs from language learning involving non-heritage language learners (Campbell and Rosenthal, 200; Valdes, 1995, 2001). Some recent studies have investigated the linguistic differences between heritage language learners and non-heritage language learners (e.g. Carreira, 2002; Ke, 1998; Nagasawa, 1995; Montrul, 2002), 2004; Polinsky, 1995, 2000; Gass and Lewis, 2007).

Since the mid-1970s, close attention has been given to the role of second language learning strategies (Anderson, 1991; Cohen, 1990, 1998; Hosenfeld, 1979, Naima, Froehlich * Todesco, 1975, O’Malley and Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990, 1993, 2002; Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975, Wenden, 1991, 2002; Wong-Gillmore, 1979). Early researchers consistently identified five (5) primary strategies that good learners use while engaged in language learning tasks: 1) memorization strategies; 2) clarification strategies; 3) communication strategies 4) monitoring strategies; and 5) prior knowledge strategies. (Gass & Selinker, 2008)

How French As A Second Language Affects PALS

PALS in ZEP-based French public schools learn French as an instructional language, and not simply as a foreign language. A range of experts classify their learning as "French as Second Language" (FSL) Learning. CASNAV Amiens reports found the FSL classification to be still disputed, even if FSL linguistic and pedagogical perspectives are intertwined. (Laborie-CASNAV Amiens, 2003). CASNAV-Amiens studies also found that FSL occupies a special status without being a general language. given that FSL is the instructional language for Morocco and Francophone Africa. (CASNAV Amiens, 2003) FSL is appropriated and modified and its content varies with the country where used (Laborie, 2003). FSL possesses an identifier dimension, comprising part of the identity of the speaker himself. (Laborie, 2003)

CASNAV found several advantages to categorizing newcomer language as FSL: 1) FSL is like French as maternal language, 2) FSL has important status, 3) FSL is a learning language, and 4) FSL has identifying status. Researchers found two disadvantages to the category: 1) the language immersing many migrants is not reflected well in FSL theory; 2) FSL does not seek to gradually become French as a maternal language, contrary to French for migrants which aims to assimilate migrants linguistically and transform the migrant child into a pure Francophone. Finally, CASNAV Amiens reports a third disadvantage: to date, FSL enjoys no pedagogical originality: it borrows theories from both French as maternal language and from French as a foreign language. (Laborie, 2003)

Cummins' Common Underlying Proficiency Model (CUP) and PALS

Cummins and other researchers concluded that when a person owns two or more languages, there is a common underlying proficiency (CUP): one integrated source of thought. (Cummins, 1984; Baker, 1993).
CUP asserts that proficiencies that involve more cognitively demanding tasks (such as literacy, content learning, abstract thinking and problem-solving) are common across languages (Cummins, 1984). Cummins (1984) found that regardless of the language in which newcomers like PALS operate, thoughts that accompany speaking, reading, writing, and listening come from the same central engine. (Cummins, 1984).
An illustration of (see Figure 4.5 ) Cummin's "dual iceberg metaphor" also represents the CUP model; the CUP model serves as basis for a linguistic interdependence hypothesis. (Cummins, 2001).


Figure 4.5. --

Additional Bilingual Research By Cummins and Possible Implications for PALS

Beneficial Bilingualism versus Semilingualism

Cummins (1987) asserted that beneficial bilingualism, or positive, cognitive effects due to learning two languages, can only be obtained on the basis of developed first language skills. Cummins found that if schooling ignores a learner’s mother tongue, the risk of semi-lingualism could arise, causing the learner to function adequately in neither the home language nor in the second language (Cummins, 1987). In such cases, second language learning can occur at the expense of the first one, producing negative effects on cognitive functioning (Cummins, 1987)

Likewise, Cummins (1988) also found first language competence to be an important condition for mathematical thinking. Foyer (1985) researchers in Belgium similarly advised implementation of an extensive mother tongue program in the first years of primary school—akin to the models implemented by the Tanger School French-Arabic program, or the Lucien de Hirsch French-Hebrew programs, both housed in the Paris 19th district (MNE, 2000).

Cummins (1984) offers a theoretical framework with which to examine the relationship between thinking and language in the bilingual or second language learner, from which implications can be drawn for PALS learning of mathematics.

Multiple studies by Cummins and other researchers support the hypotheses that a common underlying [math] proficiency can be reinforced through symbolic (L1) and verbal (L2) prompts for understanding math content in the second language. (Cummins, 1984, 1987, Baker, 1993). By application of these findings, French second language proficiency alone would not therefore determine preparedness by PALS to use their second language to learn with their monolingual French-speaking peers (see Cummins, 1984)

Dual language programs can further develop common underlying math proficiencies

Two well-received reports evaluating the success of programs with dual language math instruction (Sanchez, 1987; Groux, 1991) found that early instruction of math in both Arabic and French seemed to facilitate student ability to transition on level to math instruction in French at mainstream, non-ZEPONT> based high schools—and to do so on par with or better than their non-Arabic speaking classmates. (Groux, 1991) Dual exposure to math concepts can benefit both newly-arrived learners as well as second and third generation immigrant learners in French public schools. Similar results were found at dual language math programs for learners from other symbol-based heritage languages like Hebrew (Lucien de Hirsch , 2004)

Additional researchers (Baker, 1993) supported Cummins' finding that when both languages are used for math instruction, conceptual understandings from each language develop a common underlying mathematical proficiency which reinforces mathematical concepts and problem solving skills in both languages.

Subsequent studies concluded that bilingualism and multilingualism were possible because people had the capacity to store two or more languages (Cummins, 1984). Cognitive functioning and school achievement may be fed through one monolingual channel or equally successfully through two well-developed language channels (Cummins, 1984), yet both channels feed the same central cognitive processor. (Cummins, 1984).

Modifying Math Instruction for Language Minority Learners
Cummins (1984) has noted that when newcomers feel mistreated by the dominant group, they may tend to reject second language learning and show loyalty to their language and culture. (Cummins & Danesi, 1990).
Researchers on multicultural education provided further rationale for modifying math instruction for language minority learners with symbolically-written heritage languages (Cummins, 1984). Banks (1987) concluded that math examined from a disciplinary perspective opens itself to considering various ways other groups contribute to math knowledge, and to a range of methods for examining a given math concept.

ZEP-based Math Classroom Reforms Imply A Total Process

Earlier studies on multicultural educational strategies emphasized that total school environment affected teaching strategies (Banks, 1987). Banks suggested (1987) that in order to use instructional strategies promoting concepts of cultural (or mathematical instructional) diversity, changes must occur in all major variables of the school environment, including teacher attitudes and expectations, the “hidden curriculum”, school policy, the counseling program, and in assessment and testing procedures. (Banks, 1987)

Figure IX ( number) depicts the variables that may affect the school environment and sets forth another valence for examining variables affecting instructional improvement in ZEP classrooms.


Figure IX--Model of Factors Affecting Reform of Total School or ZEP-based School Environment

Banks (1987) referred as well to the Multiethnic Education Program Evaluation Checklist developed by the National Council for the Social Studies Task force on Ethnic Studies Curriculum Guidelines as reflected in their publications on Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education.

Research findings (cite sources) delineated several problems facing language minority learners in urban Paris public schools. Specifically, 2007 cumulative data by regional Academies tends to suggest significant overlap between middle schools where PALS access French initiation courses and schools located within more at-risk, priority education zones within ZEPs: % of all middle school initiation classes in the Paris Academy, and in the Creteil Academy, 55% of all middle school initiation classes in Val-de-Marne, 75% of all middle school initiation classes in Seine-et-Marne, 100% of all middle school initiation classes in Seine-Saint-Denis were located within ZEPs (Academy of Paris, 2007; Academy of Creteil, 2007).

French Educational System